Columbian Exchange Facts Essay Example

Columbian Exchange Facts Essay Example Columbian Exchange Facts Essay Columbian Exchange Facts Essay The Effects the Trade for New World Goods on Indigenous Relationships The European notion that the Americas had an overflow of untapped treasures and new world goods drove the development of labor in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The new world products were inclusive of commodities that had their origin from the Americas as the only source. These goods that were only found in the Americas were the cause of movements across the Atlantic Ocean by people from Eurasia and Africa. These new world products included maize, potatoes, cinchona tree (malaria therapy), tobacco, cacao, peanuts, sunflower, animals, slaves and of course diseases such as Syphilis. The motive to acquire these products led to the development of the Columbia exchange that apart from itself requiring much labor was a means of forcefully and cheaply acquiring much needed human labor from other accessible parts of the world like Africa. The resource-angry Europeans were short of labor to carry on with their quest for amassing the new world goods and therefore granted the America n natives the right to own both domestic and imported energy; a right popularly known those days as encomiendas. Bumpy rewards were in store for individuals who enabled high performances through their laborers. Columbian Exchange Effects Of all the good exchanged between the Americas and the other parts of the world, sugar was the most valuable, akin to the current worlds oil value. European conflicts arose in the struggle to establish and control sugar plantation in the Americas best sugar plantation regions. Tobacco also stood out to have great importance in this trade in the new world, where it was rather smoked a compared to the Americans use for medicinal and ritualistic purposes. Also of great value in the new world was cacao that was used to produce chocolate. Chocolate drinks known as xocolati was a ceremonial beverage among the Mesoamerican Indians and was used during marriages. This use, however, did not sink well with the Spaniards who viewed it as vile and named it the devils vomit; Apart from the crops, animals were also traded as new world goods. For instance, Christopher Columbus brought cows, pigs, horses and chicken to the Caribbean Islands on his second voyage. The new world animals also included sn akes and sloths that appeared bizarre to the Europeans. (Bresnahan; Gordon, 1997) Microbes were also unconsciously exchanged since they were small insignificant creatures with devastation effects on humans. Examples of infections that were acquired from the bacteria included smallpox, measles, and chickenpox. There was also the exchange of sexually transmitted infections (STI;s) like syphilis amongst the traders.; The labor offered under this kind of relationship was a rather full of slavery practice and was forceful to the natives. This exploitation could be seen in the bargaining tool of the conquest rulers who exposed the laborers to Catholicism instead. Being in such an exploitative kind of a relationship the American natives opted to exploit their rights and resist the colonialists rule and roles in the new world trade. Instead, they inclined to their old beliefs and systems instead of the early adopting Catholicism. Others were however adapted to portions of the new belief that had some sense and appeal in them. Effects of the Columbian Exchange The import of forced labor from other parts of the world in the context of the Columbian exchange came with violence especially brutality from the Spanish rulers. One Dominican friar named Las Casas had previously owned Indian slaves in the Americas. After witnessing the brutality that the encomenderos implicated on the natives he gave it up and sharply differed with other recipients of the encomiendas. Later in 1515 he started advocating for the kind regard and handling of the native laborers and slaves that led to the establishment of New Laws that were aimed at ending slavery and the encomiendas system.(Brands, Breen, Williams, Gross, 2016.) Although mostly discussed, Indians were not the only forced labor victims in the Americas. Africans also were victims of forced labor to the European rulers and were utilized in the production of tobacco, sugar and other cash crops for sale in the European markets. To justify the integration of Africans into enslavement, the Europeans viewed the as non-Christians and as a consequence, were completely and brutally denied the control of their lives. Any attempt of resistance to the forced labor and slavery was met with physical, mental and sexual violence from the Europeans; as a method to assert their status as master and superior. More involved in the trade for slave laborers across the Atlantic into the Americas were the Portuguese. The Portuguese had slave holder pens on the west coast of Africa like Ghanas Elmina Castle, after which the captured slaves were sold to the Spanish, English, and Dutch colonial inhabitants in the Americas to assist in the production of sugar for export. In the sugarcane plantation farms, the laborers could manually harvest and process large masses of sugarcane. The labor intensive methods involved in the production of sugar and the recycling of their byproducts into molasses was very dangerous to the unprotected manual laborers. According to Las Casas, by the year 1550, there were about fifty thousand enslaved workers in the Hispaniola owners section of the Americas. He recounts that this was the largest tragedy yet in the New Atlantic World. (New Worlds in the Americas: Labor, Commerce, and the Columbian Exchange | US History I (OS Collection), 2016) Columbian Exchange Impact Effects of Labor Trade on the Indigenous Relations The transactions between the new world and the old world had various effects on the existing indigenous relationships. Previously before these developments there existed a deep connection to the indigenous people and their geographical territories, cultural and spiritual beliefs and aesthetical connections. Encroachment of colonial rulers and the Europeans into the Americas for New world goods could have caused an imbalance in the much-treasured coexistence of the American inhabitants. Spiritually, the Europeans forcefully introduced to the Americas the new practice of Catholicism against their wish to practice their belief. This new idea is viewed to have diluted the local spiritual relationships as other natives resorted to either fully adopting the new faith or adopting the practices of the new religion that suited them most. The crops and foods that were initially viewed by the local natives as of aesthetic and therapeutic value were later abused and new uses adopted due to these interactions. An example is the use of tobacco that was initially for medicinal purposes until the Europeans made a health-deteriorating smoking habit out of it. The import and use of forceful labor and slavery in the farms and crops plantations was against the cultural belief of the natives. This engagement and the encomiendas system introduced a concept of brutality, slavery, violence and greed for resources by to against the unifying indigenous culture in the Americas. The regard for human rights and values were also corroded due to the occurrence of such incidences within the transaction zones. Sacred beliefs by the natives were also mutilated by the engagement of the colonial traders in sexual and psychological violence. Columbian Exchange Significance The export of the locally produced crops and animals also led to the loss of their aesthetic value that comes with ownership and are viewed as a value of wealth. The import and export of labor from within the exchange led to the exchange of previously non-existent infections and diseases in both camps. The acquisition of measles, chickenpox, and smallpox are a direct consequence of the purchase of slaves used as laborers from the various parts of the world. The export and import activities were also of the positive effect the indigenous people. For instance, the Americas learned better ways of land use and discovered new and essential products from the old word. The new world goods were also further explored to identify better and more appropriate uses to the American inhabitants. It evident that at the first instance, the effects associated with the trade for new world goods and labor was grave and unbearable to the indigenous people. However, the effects waned over time and a multicultural, advanced and harmonious society developed within the Americas in the long run. The world also became more open to commodities and this market the beginning of a long standing trade revolution that has generally benefited worlds economy. References Brands, H., Breen, T., Williams, R., Gross, A. American Stories. New Worlds in the Americas: Labor, Commerce, and the Columbian Exchange | US History I (OS Collection). (2016). Courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 22 October 2016, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ushistory1os2xmaster/chapter/new-worlds-in-the-americas-labor-commerce-and-the-columbian-exchange/ Bresnahan, T. Gordon, R. (1997).The economics of new goods. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Summary of the Russian Civil War

Summary of the Russian Civil War Russia’s October Revolution of 1917 produced a civil war between the Bolshevik government – who had just seized power - and a number of rebel armies. This civil war is often said to have started in 1918, but bitter fighting began in 1917. Although most of the war was over by 1920, it took until 1922 for the Bolsheviks, who held the industrial heartland of Russia from the start, to crush all opposition. Origins of the War: Reds and Whites Form In 1917, after the second revolution in one year, the socialist Bolsheviks had seized command of Russia’s political heart. They dismissed the elected Constitutional Assembly at gunpoint and banned opposition politics; it was clear they wanted a dictatorship. However, there was still stiff opposition to the Bolsheviks, not least of which from the right-wing faction in the army; this began to form a unit of volunteers from hardcore anti-Bolsheviks in the Kuban Steppes. By June 1918 this force had survived great difficulties from the infamous Russian winter, fighting the ‘First Kuban Campaign’ or the ‘Ice March’, a near continuous battle and movement against the Reds that lasted over fifty days and saw their commander Kornilov (who may have attempted a coup in 1917) killed. They now came under the command of General Denikin. They became known as the ‘Whites’ in contrast to the Bolsheviks ‘Red Army’. On the news of Kornilovâ€⠄¢s death, Lenin announced: â€Å"It can be said with certainty that, in the main, the civil war has ended.† (Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, p. 22) He could not have been more wrong. Areas on the outskirts of the Russian empire took advantage of the chaos to declare independence and in 1918 almost the whole periphery of Russia was lost to the Bolsheviks by localized military revolts. The Bolsheviks stimulated further opposition when they signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. Although the Bolsheviks had gained some of their support by pledging to end the war, the terms of the peace treaty – which gave substantial land to Germany – caused those on the left wing who remained non-Bolshevik to split away. The Bolsheviks responded by expelling them from the Soviets and then targeted them with a secret police force. In addition, Lenin wanted a brutal civil war so he could sweep away the substantial opposition in one bloodletting. Further military opposition to the Bolsheviks also emerged from foreign forces. The Western powers in World War 1 were still fighting the conflict and hoped to restart the eastern front in order to draw German forces away from the west or even just stop the weak Soviet government allowing Germans free reign in the newly conquered Russian land. Later, the allies acted to try and secure the return of nationalized foreign investments and defend the new allies they’d made. Among those campaigning for a war effort was Winston Churchill. To do this the British, French and US landed a small expeditionary force at Murmansk and Archangel. In addition to these factions, the 40,000 strong Czechoslovak Legion, which had been fighting against Germany and Austria-Hungary for independence, was given permission to leave Russia via the eastern fringe of the former empire. However, when the Red Army ordered them to disarm after a brawl, the Legion resisted and seized control of local facilities including the vital Trans-Siberian Railway. The dates of these attacks – May 25th, 1918 – are often incorrectly called the start of the Civil War, but the Czech legion did swiftly take a large territory, especially when compared to the armies in World War 1, thanks to seizing almost the entire railway and with it access to vast areas of Russia. The Czechs decided to ally with anti-Bolshevik forces in the hope of fighting against Germany again. Anti-Bolshevik forces took advantage of the chaos to coalesce here and new White armies emerged. The Nature of the Reds and Whites The ‘Reds’ - the Bolshevik-dominated Red Army, which was hastily formed in 1918 - were clustered around the capital. Operating under the leadership of Lenin and Trotsky, they had a uniform agenda, albeit one that as the war continued. They were fighting to retain control and keep Russia together. Trotsky and Bonch-Bruevich (a vital ex-Tsarist commander) pragmatically organized them along traditional military lines and used Tsarist officers, despite socialist complaints. The Tsar’s former elite joined in droves because, with their pensions canceled, they had little choice. Equally crucially, the Reds had access to the hub of the rail network and could move troops around quickly, and controlled the key supply regions for both men and material. With sixty million people, the Reds could muster greater numbers than their rivals. The Bolsheviks worked with other socialist groups like the Mensheviks and SRs when they needed to, and turned against them when the chance w as there. As a result, by the end of the civil war, the Reds were almost entirely Bolshevik. On the other hand, the Whites were far from being a unified force. They were, in practice, comprised of ad hoc groups opposed to both the Bolsheviks, and sometimes each other, and were outnumbered and overstretched thanks to controlling a smaller population over a huge area. Consequently, they failed to pull together in a unified front and were forced to operate independently. The Bolsheviks saw the war as a struggle between their workers and Russia’s upper and middle classes, and as a war of socialism against international capitalism. The Whites were loath to recognize land reforms, so didn’t convert the peasants to their cause, and were loath to recognize nationalist movements, so largely lost their support. The Whites were rooted in the old Tsarist and monarchical regime, while Russia’s masses had moved on. There were also the ‘Greens’. These were forces fighting, not for the reds of the whites, but after their own goals, like national independence – neither the Reds or Whites recognized breakaway regions - or for food and booty. There were also the ‘Blacks’, the Anarchists. The Civil War Battle in the civil war was fully joined by the middle of June 1918 on multiple fronts. The SRs created their own republic in Volga – ‘Komuch’, aided greatly by the Czech Legion - but their socialist army was beaten. An attempt by Komuch, the Siberian Provisional Government and others in the east to form a unified government produced a five-man Directory. However, a coup led by Admiral Kolchak took it over, and he was proclaimed Supreme Ruler of Russia (he had no navy). However, Kolchak and his right-leaning officers were highly suspicious of any anti-Bolshevik socialists, and the latter were driven out. Kolchek then created a military dictatorship. Kolchak was not put in power by foreign allies as the Bolsheviks later claimed; they were actually against the coup. Japanese troops had also landed in the Far East, while in late 1918 the French arrived through the south in the Crimea and British in the Caucuses. The Don Cossacks, after initial problems, rose and seized control of their region and started pushing out. Their siege of Tsaritsyn (later known as Stalingrad) caused arguments between the Bolsheviks Stalin and Trotsky, an enmity which would greatly affect Russian history. Deniken, with his ‘Volunteer Army’ and the Kuban Cossacks, had great success with limited numbers against larger, but weaker, Soviet forces in the Caucasus and Kuban, destroying a whole Soviet army. This was achieved without allied aid. He then took Kharkov and Tsaritsyn, broke out into Ukraine, and began a general move north towards Moscow from across large parts of the south, providing the greatest threat to the Soviet capital of the war. At the start of 1919, the Reds attacked Ukraine, where rebel socialists and Ukrainian nationalists who wanted the region to be independent fought back. The situation soon broke down into rebel forces dominating some regions and the Reds, under a puppet Ukrainian leader, holding others. Border regions like Latvia and Lithuania turned into stalemates as Russia preferred to fight elsewhere. Kolchak and multiple armies attacked from the Urals towards the west, made some gains, got bogged down in the thawing snow, and were pushed well back beyond the mountains. There were battles in Ukraine and surrounding areas between other countries over territory. The Northwestern Army, under Yudenich – very skilled but very small - advanced out of the Baltic and threatened St. Petersburg before his ‘allied’ elements went their own way and disrupted the attack, which was pushed back and collapsed. Meanwhile, World War 1 had ended, and the European states engaged in foreign intervention suddenly found their key motivation had evaporated. France and Italy urged a major military intervention, Britain and the US much less. The Whites urged them to stay, claiming that the Reds were a major threat to Europe, but after a series of peace initiatives failed the European intervention was scaled back. However, weaponry and equipment were still imported to the Whites. The possible consequence of any serious military mission from the allies is still debated, and Allied supplies took a while to arrive, usually only playing a role later in the war. 1920: The Red Army Triumphant The White threat was at its greatest in October 1919 (Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, p. 195), but how great this threat was is debated. However, the Red Army had survived 1919 and had time to solidify and become effective. Kolchak, pushed out of Omsk and vital supply territory by the Reds, tried to establish himself at Irktusk, but his forces fell apart and, after resigning, he was arrested by left-leaning rebels he’d managed to totally alienate during his rule, given to the Reds, and executed. Other White gains were also driven back as the Reds took advantage of overreaching lines. Tens of thousands of Whites fled through the Crimea as Denikin and his army were pushed right back and morale collapsed, the commander himself fleeing abroad. A ‘Government of South Russia’ under Vrangel was formed in the region as the remainder fought on and advanced  out but were pushed back. More evacuations then took place: nearly 150,000 fled by sea, and the Bolsheviks shot tens of thousands of those left behind. Armed independence movements in the newly declared republics of Armenia,  Georgia, and Azerbaijan were crushed, and large portions added to the new USSR. The Czech Legion were allowed to travel east and evacuate by sea. The major failure of 1920 was the attack  on  Poland, which followed Polish attacks into disputed areas during 1919 and early 1920. The worker’s revolt the Reds were anticipating didn’t happen, and the Soviet army was ejected. The Civil War was effectively over by November 1920, although pockets of resistance struggled on for a few more years. The Reds were victorious. Now their Red Army and Cheka could focus on hunting down and eliminating the remaining traces of White Support. It took until 1922 for Japan to pull their troops out of the Far East. Between seven and ten million had died from war,  disease, and famine. All sides committed great atrocities. Aftermath The failure of the Whites in the civil war was caused in large part by their failure to unite, although because of Russia’s vast geography it’s hard to see how they ever could have provided a united front. They were also outnumbered and  outsupplied  by the Red Army, which had better communications. It’s also believed that the failure of the Whites to adopt a program of policies which would have appealed to the peasants – such as land reform – or the nationalists – such as independence – stopped them gaining any mass support. This failure allowed the Bolsheviks to establish themselves as rulers of the new, communist USSR, which would directly and substantially affect European – and world – history for decades. The Reds were by no means popular, but they were more popular than the conservative Whites thanks to land reform; by no means an effective government, but more effective than the Whites. The Red Terror of the Cheka was more effective than the White Terror, allowing a greater grip on their host population, stopping the sort of internal rebellion which might have fatally weakened the Reds. They outnumbered and outproduced their opponents thanks to holding the core of Russia, and could defeat their enemies piecemeal. The Russian economy was massively damaged, leading to Lenin’s pragmatic retreat into the market forces of the New Economic Policy. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were accepted as independent. The Bolsheviks has consolidated their power, with the party expanding, dissidents being quelled and institutions taking shape. Quite what effect the war had on the Bolsheviks, who started with a loose grip on Russia with little established, and ended firmly in charge, is debated. For many, the war happened so early in the lifespan of the Bolshevik’s rule that it had a massive effect, leading to the party’s willingness to coerce by violence, use highly centralized policies, dictatorship, and ‘summary justice’. A third of Communist party (the old Bolshevik party) members who joined in 1917 – 20 had fought in the war and gave the party an overall feeling of military command and unquestioned obedience to orders. The Reds were also able to tap into the Tsarist mindset to dominate.